INTRODUCTION:

Pharmaceuticals, environmental monitoring, and food analysis are just a few of the businesses that use Gas Chromatography (GC), a potent analytical method. This technology has advanced dramatically, providing increased efficiency, speed, and sensitivity. It does have drawbacks, though, just as any analytical technique. Gas Chromatography (GC) is a widely utilized analytical technique for the separation, identification, and quantification of volatile and semi-volatile compounds. Since its development in the mid-20th century, GC has become an indispensable tool in various scientific and industrial fields, including pharmaceutical analysis, environmental monitoring, forensic science, petrochemical industries, and food safety assessment. Its ability to provide high-resolution separations, rapid analysis, and superior sensitivity makes it a preferred choice for complex mixture analysis. The fundamental principle of GC is based on the differential partitioning of analytes between a mobile phase (carrier gas) and a stationary phase (coated within a chromatographic column). The interaction between the sample components and the stationary phase governs the separation process, allowing for the precise identification and quantification of individual compounds. The technique has evolved significantly with advancements in instrumentation, column technology, and detection methods, improving its accuracy, efficiency, and applicability.

In recent years, hyphenated techniques such as Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) and Multidimensional Gas Chromatography (GC×GC) have further expanded the capabilities of GC, enabling the detection of trace-level contaminants and complex compound characterization. Additionally, innovations in miniaturized GC systems, automation, and real-time analysis have enhanced its application across various industries.

Fundamental Principle:

Gas Chromatography (GC) is a powerful analytical technique used to separate, identify, and quantify volatile and semi-volatile compounds in a mixture. It operates on the principle of partitioning compounds between a mobile phase (carrier gas) and a stationary phase (column material) based on their boiling points, polarity, and molecular interactions.

Retention Time and Separation Mechanism: Each compound has a characteristic retention time (t₀), the time taken to elute from the column. Separation is based on:

Boiling Point: Lower boiling compounds elute first.

Polarity: Polar compounds interact more with a polar stationary phase.

Molecular Size: Smaller molecules diffuse faster, leading to quicker elution.

For example:

In a non-polar column, hydrocarbons elute in order of increasing molecular weight.

In a polar column, alcohols elute based on their polarity and hydrogen bonding.

Instrumentation:

Gas Chromatography (GC) consists of several key components that work together to ensure the separation, identification, and quantification of volatile and semi-volatile compounds. The primary components of a GC system include a carrier gas supply, injection system, chromatographic column, oven, and detector. Each component plays a crucial role in optimizing the efficiency and accuracy of the analysis.

Figure No. 1: Gas Chromatography (GC) instrumentation

Key Components of a Gas Chromatography:

1. Carrier Gas Supply:

The carrier gas is a crucial component in Gas Chromatography (GC), serving as the mobile phase that transports the sample through the chromatographic column. The choice of carrier gas significantly influences separation efficiency, resolution, sensitivity, and analysis time. Proper selection and control of carrier gas parameters, such as flow rate and pressure, are essential for achieving optimal chromatographic performance.

Table No. 1: Common carrier gases used in GC

Carrier Gas	Properties	Common Applications	Advantages	Disadvantages
Helium (He)	Inert, high thermal conductivity, non- flammable	General-purpose, GC-MS, capillary columns	High efficiency, good resolution, widely used	Expensive, limited supply
Hydrogen (H₂)	Highly diffusive, fastest velocity, reactive	Capillary GC, FID, TCD	Fast analysis, improved resolution, lower cost	Flammable, requires safety precautions
Nitrogen (N₂)	Inert, lowest optimal velocity	Packed columns, ECD	Inexpensive, good efficiency at low flow rates	Slower separation, less efficient for capillary columns
Argon (Ar)	Heavy gas, inert	GC-MS, specialized applications	High mass detector response	Expensive, not commonly used

2. B. Sample Injection System:

The sample injection system in Gas Chromatography (GC) is a critical component that ensures accurate and reproducible sample introduction into the chromatographic column. Proper sample injection is essential for achieving efficient separation, minimal band broadening, and precise quantification. The injection system must vaporize the sample (if not already in gas form), introduce it into the carrier gas stream, and deliver it to the column under controlled conditions.

Types of injection methods:

Split Injection – Used for concentrated samples; only a portion of the sample enters the column.

Splitless Injection – Ideal for trace analysis; the entire sample is introduced into the column.

On-Column Injection – Direct injection into the column for thermally unstable compounds.

Headspace Sampling – Analyzes volatile compounds in solid or liquid samples.

Table No. 2: Selection of suitable injection method

Injection Method	Best For	Limitations
Split Injection	High-concentration samples	Not suitable for trace analysis
Splitless Injection	Trace analysis, environmental and forensic samples	Longer solvent removal time
On-Column Injection	Thermally unstable compounds	Limited to low-temperature separations
Cold On-Column Injection	High-boiling and fragile compounds	Not ideal for volatile analytes
Headspace Injection	Volatile compounds in complex matrices	Limited to volatile analytes
Pyrolysis Injection	Non-volatile polymers and biopolymers	Requires high-temperature setup

3. C. Chromatographic Column and Oven:

The chromatographic column is the core component of a Gas Chromatography (GC) system, where the separation of analytes occurs based on their interaction with the stationary phase. The efficiency, selectivity, and resolution of GC analysis largely depend on the column type, dimensions, stationary phase composition, and operating conditions. The heart of the GC system, where separation of analytes occurs based on their affinity for the stationary phase.

Types of Columns:

a. Packed Columns:

Contain a stationary phase-coated solid support.

Used for gas analysis and specific industrial applications.

Capillary Columns (Open-Tubular Columns):

Provide higher efficiency and better resolution.

Types:

a. Wall-Coated Open Tubular (WCOT) – Thin film of stationary phase on the inner wall.

b. Porous-Layer Open Tubular (PLOT) – Coated with porous material for gas separations.

c. Support-Coated Open Tubular (SCOT) – Combines properties of WCOT and packed columns.

Column Selection Criteria:

Choosing the right column type, stationary phase, and dimensions is crucial for optimal separation.

a. Column Length

Shorter Columns (15–30 m): Faster analysis, lower resolution.

Longer Columns (50–60 m): Higher resolution, longer retention times.

b. Column Diameter

Narrower Diameter (0.1–0.32 mm): Higher resolution, lower sample capacity.

Wider Diameter (0.53 mm): Higher sample capacity, lower resolution.

c. Film Thickness of Stationary Phase

Thicker Films (1–5 µm): Better for volatile compounds, longer retention times.

Thinner Films (<1 µm): Faster analysis, improved peak shapes for high-boiling analytes.

GC Oven:

The GC oven is a critical component in Gas Chromatography (GC) that provides precise temperature control for the chromatographic column. Since separation in GC relies on the volatility and interaction of analytes with the stationary phase, proper oven temperature management ensures optimal retention times, peak resolution, and efficient separations.

It maintains precise temperature control, essential for effective separation.

Isothermal Analysis: Constant temperature throughout the run (used for simple mixtures).

Temperature Programming: Gradual increase in temperature to separate complex mixtures efficiently.

Table No. 3: GC oven temperature

Application	Typical Oven Temperature Range (°C)	Example Compounds
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)	35-150°C	Benzene, toluene, ethanol
Hydrocarbons	50-250°C	Alkanes, aromatics
Pesticides	70-300°C	Organochlorines, pyrethroids
Fatty Acids	100-350°C	Methyl esters, lipids
Pharmaceutical Compounds	50-280°C	Drug metabolites, steroids

D. Detectors:

The detector is a crucial component of a Gas Chromatography (GC) system, responsible for identifying and quantifying analytes as they elute from the column. The choice of the detector depends on the type of compounds being analyzed, required sensitivity, and selectivity.

Common GC Detectors:

· Flame Ionization Detector (FID):

The Flame Ionization Detector (FID) is one of the most widely used detectors in Gas Chromatography (GC) due to its high sensitivity, wide dynamic range, and ability to detect organic compounds. It is particularly effective for detecting hydrocarbons, alcohols, ketones, and esters, making it popular in fields such as petroleum analysis, environmental monitoring, and food chemistry. The FID works by burning organic compounds in a hydrogen-air flame, which leads to ionization. The ions produced generate an electrical current that is proportional to the number of carbon atoms present in the analyte.

· Thermal Conductivity Detector (TCD):

The Thermal Conductivity Detector (TCD) is one of the oldest and most widely used detectors in Gas Chromatography (GC). It is a universal, non-destructive detector that responds to almost all compounds, including inorganic gases and organic molecules. TCD is commonly used for the analysis of permanent gases (H₂, O₂, N₂, CO₂), hydrocarbons, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The TCD operates on the principle of thermal conductivity – the ability of a substance to conduct heat. It measures the difference in thermal conductivity between a carrier gas and the sample components.

· Electron Capture Detector (ECD):

The Electron Capture Detector (ECD) is a highly sensitive and selective detector used in Gas Chromatography (GC) to detect electronegative compounds, particularly halogenated molecules, nitro compounds, organophosphates, and other electrophilic substances. Due to its extreme sensitivity (detecting compounds at femtogram (fg) levels), it is widely used in environmental monitoring, pesticide analysis, and forensic investigations. The ECD operates on the principle of electron capture, where electronegative analytes capture free electrons, reducing the current and generating a measurable signal.

Table No. 4: Detector Selection Based on Application

Application	Recommended Detector(s)
Hydrocarbons, fuels	FID, TCD
Pesticides, halogenated compounds	ECD, GC-MS
Drugs, pharmaceuticals	NPD, GC-MS
Sulfur-containing compounds	FPD, GC-MS
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)	PID, GC-MS
Permanent gases (O2, N2, CO2)	TCD
Explosives, forensic analysis	NPD, GC-MS

E. Additional Components:

Data Acquisition System: Modern GC systems use computerized software for data collection, peak integration, and quantitative analysis.

Autosampler: Ensures precision in sample injection, improving reproducibility.

Factors Affecting GC Separation:

The efficiency and resolution of Gas Chromatography (GC) separation depend on multiple factors, including column properties, carrier gas parameters, temperature control, and sample characteristics. Optimizing these factors improves peak resolution, reduces analysis time, and enhances sensitivity.

Table No. 5: Factors involved

Factor	Effect on Separation
Column Length	Longer columns improve resolution but increase analysis time.
Column Diameter	Narrower columns give better separation but require higher pressure.
Stationary Phase Polarity	Matches analyte polarity for better selectivity.
Carrier Gas Flow Rate	Higher flow speeds up analysis but may reduce resolution.
Oven Temperature	Higher temperatures speed up elution but may reduce separation.

GC Method Development:

The following steps were included in the GC method of development:

1. Investigating Finding the ideal combinations for a successful separation by screening different column and eluent conditions.

2. Improving separation conditions through alternative testing to attain optimal resolution, speed, and repeatability.

3. Testing for robustness Assessing the effects of altering the separation method’s parameters on the outcomes.

4. Verification Assessing if the developed analytical method is appropriate for the intended use.

GC Method Validation:

Bioanalytical method validation:

Validation is mandatory by the regulatory agencies. The main objective of method validation is to demonstrate the reliability of a particular method developed for the quantitative determination of an analyte in a specific Biological matrix⁶.

Full Validation:

Full validation is necessary when developing and implementing an analytical method for Analysis of a new drug entity, when developing and implementing a bioanalytical method for The first time and when an existing assay method is modified metabolites are added to an Existing assay for quantification of a drug.

Partial Validation:

Partial validations are modifications of existing validated bioanalytical methods. Determination to a nearly full validation. Bioanalytical method changes that require partial validation are Method transfers between laboratories or analysts Modification of analytical Methodology (e.g., change in detection systems), addition of different anticoagulant in harvesting biological fluid changes in matrix within the same species (e.g., human plasma to human urine), alteration of sample processing procedures Changes in species within matrix (eg., rat plasma to mouse plasma).

Cross Validation:

Cross-validation compares two bioanalytical techniques for the same medication. The updated bioanalytical method is the comparator, while the original, certified bioanalytical method is the reference. When two or more bioanalytical techniques are employed to produce data for a single study, cross validation is necessary.

Cross-validation using spiked matrix standards and subject samples should be carried out to establish inter-laboratory reliability when sample analyses within a single research are carried out at multiple locations of different laboratories. Additionally, cross-validation should be taken into account when data is generated utilizing several analytical All factors affecting the quality of the data, including selectivity, are included in the fundamental parameters for the validation of a chemical assay. Linearity, recovery, accuracy, precision, stability, reproducibility, specificity and calibration model etc.

Selectivity (Specificity):

The ability of an analytical technique to distinguish and measure the analyte in the presence of other components in the sample is known as selectivity. Endogenous matrix components, metabolites, breakdown products, and, in the case of the study, concurrent xenobiotic medications are examples of potential interfering chemicals in a biological matrix. As well as additional exogenous Analyzing blank samples of the relevant biological matrix from a minimum of six sources is necessary for selectivity. Selectivity should be guaranteed at LOQ, and each blank should be examined for interference from other drugs.

Accuracy:

The degree to which the mean test findings produced by an analytical procedure closely resemble the actual value (analyte concentration) is known as its accuracy. Using a minimum of six determinations per concentration, accuracy should be assessed for at least three concentrations within the anticipated concentration range. With the exception of LOQ, where it shouldn’t vary by more than 20%, the mean should be within 15% of the actual value. Accuracy is gauged by this mean’s departure from the actual value.⁴

Precision:

When an analytical procedure is done repeatedly to several aliquots of a single homogenous volume of biological matrix, the precision of the method is defined as the proximity of individual measures of an analyte. A minimum of three concentrations within the anticipated concentration range, with five determinations per concentration, should be used to gauge precision. No more than 15% of the coefficient shall be exceeded by the precision calculated at each concentration level of variation (CV), with the exception of the LOQ, which shouldn’t be more than 20% of the CV.

Recovery:

In an assay, an analyte’s recovery is determined by comparing the detector response for the actual concentration of the pure authentic standard with the detector response for a quantity of the analyte introduced to and extracted from the biological matrix. Three concentrations (low, medium, and high) should be used for recovery tests, and unextracted standards representing 100% recovery should be used. Analyte recovery does not have to be 100%, although the degree of recovery Additionally, an internal standard ought to be repeatable, accurate, and consistent.

Linearity:

This refers to the relationship between the instrument's response and known analyte concentrations. The ability of the procedure to produce test findings that are exactly proportionate to the analyte concentration in the sample is measured by linearity.

Calibration Curve:

It is the connection between known analyte concentrations and experimental response values. The same biological matrix used for the intended investigation should be used to create a calibration curve by spiking the matrix with known analyte concentrations. If there aren’t enough blank samples available, for example. 0.9% NaCl can be utilized as a calibration matrix for cerebrospinal fluid, and the results of the two matrices should be compared. 20% of the LLOQ deviates from actual concentrations, while 15% of standards other than LLOQ deviate from genuine values. Including the LLOQ and the calibration standard at the maximum concentration, at least four of the six non-zero standards should satisfy the aforementioned requirements.

Applications of GC:

Gas Chromatography (GC) is a powerful analytical technique used for the separation, identification, and quantification of volatile and semi-volatile compounds. Due to its high sensitivity, resolution, and fast analysis time, GC is widely applied in various fields, including pharmaceuticals, environmental monitoring, forensics, food safety, and petrochemical industries.

Pharmaceutical Industry:

GC is extensively used in drug development, quality control, and formulation analysis.

Purity Testing – Detects residual solvents and impurities in pharmaceuticals.

Drug Metabolism Studies – Identifies drug metabolites in biological fluids.

Pharmaceutical Stability Testing – Monitors drug degradation over time.

API (Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient) Analysis – Confirms drug identity and concentration.

Example: GC is used to analyze residual solvents in drugs as per ICH guidelines.

Environmental Analysis:

GC is crucial for monitoring pollutants, detecting toxic compounds, and ensuring environmental safety.

Air Quality Monitoring – Detects volatile organic compounds (VOCs), greenhouse gases (GHGs), and industrial emissions.

Water and Soil Analysis – Identifies pesticides, herbicides, and hydrocarbons.

Waste Management – Analyzes hazardous waste for regulatory compliance.

Example: GC with an Electron Capture Detector (ECD) is used to analyse pesticides in water samples.

Food and Beverage Industry:

GC ensures food safety, quality control, and flavor analysis in the food industry.

Food Contaminant Detection – Identifies pesticide residues, toxins, and adulterants.

Aroma and Flavor Analysis – Determines essential oils, aroma compounds, and food additives.

Fatty Acid Profile Analysis – Analyses oils and fats in food products.

Food Packaging Analysis – Detects contaminants migrating from packaging materials.

Example: GC-MS (Mass Spectrometry) is used for analyzing artificial flavors in beverages.

Forensic Science:

GC plays a vital role in criminal investigations, toxicology, and drug testing.

Drug and Poison Analysis – Identifies illicit drugs, narcotics, and poisons in biological samples.

Arson Investigation – Detects accelerants like gasoline and kerosene in fire debris.

Explosives Detection – Identifies volatile explosives in forensic evidence.

Blood Alcohol Testing – Determines ethanol levels in DUI (Driving Under Influence) cases.

Example: GC-FID is used to measure blood alcohol concentration (BAC) in forensic toxicology.

Petrochemical and Energy Sector:

GC is essential for analyzing crude oil, natural gas, and fuels to ensure quality and compliance.

Gasoline and Diesel Analysis – Determines hydrocarbon composition.

Natural Gas Analysis – Identifies methane, ethane, and other gaseous components.

Oil Refining and Quality Control – Monitors petroleum distillation fractions.

Biomass and Biofuels Analysis – Analyses bioethanol and biodiesel composition.

Example: GC-TCD (Thermal Conductivity Detector) is used to analyse natural gas composition.

Clinical and Medical Research:

GC is widely used in clinical diagnostics, metabolic studies, and disease biomarker detection.

Metabolomics – Identifies biomarkers in diseases like diabetes and cancer.

Clinical Toxicology – Detects drugs, toxins, and metabolic by-products in blood and urine.

Breath Analysis – Measures volatile organic compounds (VOCs) for disease diagnosis.

Example: GC-MS is used for analyzing breath samples for Helicobacter pylori infection (linked to stomach ulcers).

Cosmetics and Personal Care Industry:

GC is used for quality control, fragrance analysis, and safety testing in cosmetics.

Perfume and Fragrance Analysis – Determines volatile aromatic compounds.

Cosmetic Safety Testing – Identifies harmful chemicals like parabens and phthalates.

Essential Oils Purity Testing – Confirms composition of natural oils.

Example: GC is used to analyse lavender and rose essential oils in perfumes.

Industrial and Manufacturing Sector:

GC is employed in process control, quality testing, and material analysis.

Polymer and Plastic Analysis – Determines volatile additives and residual monomers.

Solvent Recovery and Monitoring – Ensures purity of industrial solvents.

Paints and Coatings Testing – Identifies volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

Example: GC is used to test VOC emissions in paint formulations.

GC- A Gold standard technique:

Gas Chromatography (GC) is widely regarded as a gold standard technique in analytical chemistry due to its high resolution, sensitivity, reproducibility, and versatility. It is extensively used for qualitative and quantitative analysis of volatile and semi-volatile compounds across numerous industries, including pharmaceuticals, forensics, food safety, and environmental science.

High Sensitivity and Selectivity:

Gas Chromatography (GC) is widely recognized for its high sensitivity and selectivity, making it a preferred analytical tool for detecting and quantifying volatile and semi-volatile compounds. These characteristics allow GC to detect trace amounts of substances in complex mixtures with high precision.

Sensitivity refers to the ability of GC to detect very low concentrations of a compound, often in the parts per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb), or even parts per trillion (ppt) range. This is achieved through:

Efficient Column Technology – Narrow-bore capillary columns enhance peak separation and signal strength.

Highly Sensitive Detectors – GC is coupled with detectors like Flame Ionization Detector (FID), Electron Capture Detector (ECD), and Mass Spectrometry (MS), which can detect ultra-low concentrations.

Optimized Carrier Gas and Flow Rate – Reduces background noise, improving signal detection.

Preconcentration Techniques – Methods like solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and purge-and-trap (PandT) enhance the sensitivity of GC.

Selectivity is the ability of GC to distinguish and accurately separate closely related compounds in a mixture. GC achieves high selectivity through:

Column Polarity and Coating – The choice of stationary phase (polar or non-polar) helps separate compounds with similar boiling points.

Different Detector Types – Some detectors are compound-specific, enhancing selectivity (e.g., ECD for halogenated compounds, FID for hydrocarbons).

Excellent Resolution and Separation Efficiency

Gas Chromatography (GC) is highly regarded for its excellent resolution and separation efficiency, making it an indispensable analytical tool for complex mixtures. These characteristics allow GC to resolve closely related compounds, even those with similar boiling points, polarity, or molecular structures.

Resolution (Rs) refers to the ability of GC to distinguish between two closely eluting peaks. Higher resolution means better separation and more accurate identification of individual components in a mixture.

Narrow and Sharp Peaks – Well-resolved peaks with minimal overlap improve quantification accuracy.
Baseline Separation – Ensures that each compound is detected without interference from others.
Minimization of Peak Tailing – Enhances chromatographic efficiency by reducing peak distortion.

Separation efficiency is measured by the number of theoretical plates (N) in a chromatographic column, which represents how well the column can separate different compounds.

Higher Number of Theoretical Plates – More plates mean better separation efficiency.

Long Capillary Columns – Increase efficiency by providing more interaction sites between analytes and stationary phase.

Optimized Carrier Gas Flow Rate – Reduces band broadening and enhances peak separation.

Rapid and Reliable Analysis:

Short Analysis Time – GC typically completes analysis within seconds to minutes, depending on the sample and method parameters.

Efficient Sample Introduction – Techniques like split/splitless injection and headspace GC reduce sample preparation time.

Optimized Carrier Gas Flow – Helium and hydrogen provide fast elution and reduce run time.

Reproducible Results – GC provides consistent retention times, peak shapes, and quantification under controlled conditions.

Highly Selective Detectors – Coupled with FID, ECD, TCD, or MS, GC ensures precise detection of specific compounds.

Automation and Data Processing – Modern GC systems offer automated injections, peak integration, and calibration, minimizing human error.

Quality Control and Standardization – Widely accepted by regulatory agencies (FDA, EPA, ICH, USP) for accurate chemical analysis.

Future Prospects:

Gas Chromatography (GC) has continually evolved, adapting to advancements in technology, automation, and environmental regulations. Future developments in GC will focus on enhanced speed, sensitivity, miniaturization, automation, and greener techniques, making it even more indispensable across various industries.

Integration with Automation and AI:

AI-Powered Data Processing – Machine learning algorithms will enhance peak identification, compound prediction, and anomaly detection in chromatograms.

Automated Sample Preparation and Injection – Robotics and AI-driven systems will reduce human error and increase throughput.

Cloud-Based Data Management – GC data will be stored in cloud platforms for real-time analysis and remote accessibility.

Green and Sustainable GC Technologies:

Use of Alternative Carrier Gases – Transition from helium to hydrogen or nitrogen due to helium shortages and cost concerns.

Eco-Friendly Column Materials – Development of biodegradable or recyclable stationary phases.
Reduced Solvent and Energy Consumption – Innovations in low-temperature GC and solvent-free extraction techniques will make GC more environmentally sustainable.

Hyphenated and Multi-Dimensional GC Techniques

GC-MS/MS and GC-FTIR – Enhanced hyphenation with mass spectrometry, infrared spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) will improve structural elucidation.

Two-Dimensional GC (GC×GC) – Advanced multi-dimensional GC techniques will enable superior separation of highly complex mixtures.

CONCLUSION:

Gas Chromatography (GC) has established itself as an imperative analytical tool due to its high sensitivity, selectivity, resolution, and efficiency in separating and analyzing volatile and semi-volatile compounds. Its versatility has made it indispensable across various industries, including pharmaceuticals, forensics, environmental science, food safety, petrochemicals, and biomedical research. Advancements in instrumentation, automation, artificial intelligence, and green chemistry continue to enhance the capabilities of GC, making it faster, more efficient, and environmentally sustainable. The integration of hyphenated techniques (GC-MS, GC-FTIR, GC×GC) and the development of miniaturized, field-portable GC systems further expand its applications, ensuring its continued relevance in analytical sciences. Looking ahead, the future of GC lies in real-time analysis, AI-driven data interpretation, and sustainable practices, addressing both current analytical challenges and emerging scientific needs. As research and technology progress, GC will remain a gold standard technique for accurate and reliable chemical analysis in various disciplines.

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Received on 11.08.2025 Revised on 13.11.2025

Accepted on 15.01.2026 Published on 24.06.2026

Available online from June 30, 2026

International Journal of Technology. 2026; 16(1):43-52.

DOI: 10.52711/2231-3915.2026.00005

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